E-commerce Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Internet business - Essay Example In this article, the writer guarantees that E-trade happens to be the electronic trade, it's a type of business where the offer of items and choices or the two organizations did about devices including the Web and other home Laptop or PC systems to additionally improve institutional fundamental execution. The advancement of online business has improved organization across countries. From when it turned out discharged, organizations have taken increase it to, upgrade paper online help items, improve their commercial center offer, grow benefit and scale down shipment time. Web based business was just non-existent in many parts inside the planet. In the 21st century, prompt improvement of data innovation and the quick increment in data trade have assisted with carrying new drives and imaginative plans to the total society. The wide appropriation of it by the network has brought about incredible changes. These are changes which affect how we speak with one another, how precisely we sort out our day by day exercises, how we instruct the more youthful age, and how we maintain the business venture. The turn of events and broad reception of it, PC arrange, and the Internet have changed the technique for activity of a few organizations, and simultaneously have brought along extraordinary work at home chances. Organizations are presently in a situation to lead adventures across geological limits. This is perhaps the best expositions about E-trade. Hustle just a bit and get this most noteworthy A potential work just now!... Nonetheless, this segment is profoundly serious in light of the fact that the boundaries or expenses of entering the web e-tail advertise are not many, which caused numerous little e-tail amasses come up on the web. Turning out to be beneficial and enduring is hard for e-rears without brand name or experience since they face the test of separating the business from the current stores or sites. Internet business new companies that plan to procure cash by offering content face challenges except if they have special sources other substance suppliers can't access since the conventional substance suppliers direct the vast majority of this business class. Too, rivalry among online exchange agents has been savage over the most recent couple of years with new participants like E*Trade, Datek and Schwab offering all the more engaging proposals to customers. Market prospect for online market makers is huge for firms with money related assets and promoting plans for drawing in satisfactory purc hasers and dealers to the commercial center. Therefore, new firms wanting to make a market need forceful marking and mindfulness projects to draw adequate clients like huge electronic firms like Amazon that influence huge client base and start sell off. The upside of B2C is that it bases on trustworthy physical frameworks, information on buyer inclinations, culture and language, brand acknowledgment and trust (â€Å"E-trade Business Models†¦Ã¢â‚¬ , 2009; Nemcova, 2011). The greater part of the income in web based business include business-to-business (B2B) despite the fact that most open consideration center around B2C since the majority of B2B is concealed by normal shopper. E-merchant organizations like W.W. Grainger gracefully items and administrations to singular organizations in this way e-wholesalers are claimed by an organization that tries to serve different clients. More items and

Great Britain and the Industrial Revolution Essay -- Essays Papers

Extraordinary Britain and the Industrial Revolution For what reason did Great Britain lead the Industrial Revolution? The Industrial Revolution of the eighteenth century changed Europe until the end of time. At the front of this change was Great Britain, which utilized some normal points of interest and huge reasoning and advancement to turn into the pioneer of the Industrial Revolution. To begin with, Britain had some enormous regular qualities. It was normally blessed with numerous stores of coal and iron metal, which were utilized vigorously in the beginning periods of plant creation. What's more, Britain was arranged at a basic point for worldwide exchange. Its situation between the United States and the remainder of Europe permitted them to have a genuine effect in all issues of exchange. In like manner, a large number of traversable conduits, simple access to the ocean, and a gentle atmosphere all added to the beginning of industrialism. England's geography was helpful for industrialism since its decent variety took into account the creation of numerous horticultural items, forestalling any kind of deficiency or starvation. Evans comments, â€Å"Each single such favorable position could be imitated in other European nations and some could be complemented, yet no other country appreciated such a rich mix of normal bounties† (111). Moreover, the country wa s liberated from many exchange duties that hampered industry in other European countries while including a genuine open door for upward development in the public arena which gave an incredible motivating force to securing riches. England likewise experienced gigantic populace development which gave a potential workforce just as an expansion in the interest for merchandise. Notwithstanding these common resources, there was additionally extraordinary development and mechanical development in Britain. One of the b... ...not on governments, however on men of activity, assurance, aspiration, vision, genius, resolve, and (not inconsistently) great, legitimate greed† (117). The Industrial Revolution, drove by Great Britain, incredibly changed the current disposition of frailty towards nature to one of intensity since now individuals had the option to deliver enough merchandise and food to help the growing populace. The capacity to deliver an excess that emerged from the progressing industrialization implied that individuals no longer needed to stress over nature and its consequences for the economy. The Industrial Revolution drove by Great Britain drastically changed Europe's social and monetary lifestyles and gave the force to the gigantic advancement of the nineteenth century. Work Cited Evans, Eric J. The Forging of the Modern State: Early Industrial Britain. London and New York: Longman, 1996.

I Love Discontents A Starter Course in Experimental Feminist Literature

I Love Discontents A Starter Course in Experimental Feminist Literature With the recent-ish news that Amazon has ordered a half-hour comedy pilot for Chris Kraus’s seminal (SORRY, COULDN’T HELP MYSELF) 1997 experimental feminist novel, I Love Dick, a person with a great love for passionately weird and beautifully eccentric feminist literature cannot be blamed for a sudden sense of hope that perhaps the time has finally arrived when everyone will be reading great, gorgeous, and boundary-crushing books. Well, okay, maybe that person isn’t holding her breath, but there’s no better moment than the present to brush up on some fundamental contemporary feminist texts. If nothing else, an exhaustive knowledge of experimental and postmodern feminist fiction is an extremely useful party trick when some dude starts going off about David Foster Wallace (“not Infinite Jest, the essays”) for the fourteen thousandth time. In no particular order, here’s a handful of gloriously weird books that will make you think harder and prettier, cross my heart, and Iv e got lots  more recommendations where these come from if anyone is interested in a follow-up post. Renee Gladman’s Ravicka novels: Danielle Dutton’s magical press Dorothy: A Publishing Project is a constant source of genre-defying books that use language in brilliant, beautiful ways (seriously, her entire list is GOLD), and Renee Gladman’s Ravicka novels are particularly ravishing examples. In one, a mysterious linguist, fluent in Ravic, narrates her journey through the strange, constantly shifting country of Ravicka. In another, a Ravickian recluse does her best to get to a poetry reading, with unexpected results. Gladman’s wild, beautiful books echo bits of Borges and Samuel R. Delany, but build their eerie worlds with a sensibility entirely Gladman’s own. As a special bonus prize, once youve gone through the entire Dorothy catalogue, you can move on to Duttons own novels, which are as sharp and dazzling  as the work she publishes. Oreo  by Fran Ross: First published in 1974â€"into a landscape that was definitely, totally not ready for itâ€"and happily reissued in 2015 by New Directions, Oreo is a criminally neglected and totally hilarious knockout of a novel that uses fantastically inventive language games, pyrotechnic virtuosity, and maliciously dark humor to tell the deliberately absurdist Theseus-esque story of a half-black, half-Jewish girl’s search for her MIA father. There are puns, there’s unbelievable wordplay, jokes in multiple languages, a narrative that veers wildly from uproariously funny to, in places, utterly impenetrable; Oreo is subversive, queer, relentlessly intelligent, and gleefully challenging. Perfect for people who really meant to make it through Thomas Pynchon but never quite bothered to get very far because Thomas Pynchon isn’t actually that fun. (Cough, cough.) Commentary  by Marcelle Sauvageot (translated by Christine Schwartz Hartley and Anna Moschovakis): Pretty much a sadder, sharper I Love Dick without the husband, written by a dying Frenchwoman in the early twentieth century. Beloved by her Surrealist besties at the time, Sauvageot fell into obscurity after her death, but Commentary  will ring solid for fans of Maggie Nelson’s Bluets and Chris Kraus herself. (Translator Anna Moschovakis’s own work is another great body of experimental prose-poetry-theory-memoir to check out.) Inferno: A Poet’s Novel  by Eileen Myles: Myles is having a Serious Moment right now, but if you’re unfamiliar with her work, Inferno is hands-down my favorite out of all her books (though Cool For You and Chelsea Girls were game-changers for me as a baby queerdo). Inferno’s a more or less autobiographical detour through the hip, bro-heavy poetry scene of 1970s New York, punctuated with acerbic observations, bad behavior, and hot sex. Myles can swerve from devastatingly funny to just plain old devastating in a single sentence; her language in Inferno is precise, snarky, and often stunning, and anybody’s who’s ever tried to pass herself off as one of the boys in order to survive as a girl will find page after page of, let us say, highly relatable material.

What Is Literature Essay - 689 Words

Charmine J. Cramales BS Math II Lit 3 10:30 – 12:00 What is Literature? Poems, novels, and stories; these are some of the things that first came to my mind upon pondering on the question What is Literature?. And just lately I have known that literature also includes songs, speeches, plays, and many others in written and spoken forms. I have also known that things that are produced out of creative imagination can be referred as literary works which are the ones that comprise literature. Considering this description of what literature is, the coverage of literature seems very puzzling. If literary works are those produced out of creative imagining, then it would directly point to fictional works. But then, there are also†¦show more content†¦Take for example the views of two individuals coming from different places on a novel based on the culture of one. It would likely be the same if their culture and beliefs are quiet related but if not, then they would surely have different understandings on certain parts of that novel. Hence, defining literatu re as those considered by people as ‘literature’ is questionable. Eagleton also associated literature as any kind of works which are valued highly by people. But then again, since people may have different perceptions on things, one may value highly a certain work while another person may consider it just as a plain writing. As stated by Ms. Pinzon, a literature professor, a personal letter can be an example of this. The recipient of the letter can be expected to really value the letter while her classmate may not. Hence, this can’t define literature as a whole. Then, what really is literature? Many great critics have tried formulating a fixed definition of literature but have failed to do so. In the rise of every possible definition of what literature is, counter arguments also rise. Literature, though it seems impossible to enumerate everything it covers, play an important role in every individuals life. One can influence using literature or be influenced by it. Examples of these are the novels made by our very own national hero, Jose Rizal – the Noli Me Tangeri and El Filibusterismo. During his time, Rizal hasShow MoreRelatedWhat Is Literature? Essay1778 Words   |  8 PagesSince the 18th century, the definition of the concept literature has become a problematic and a controversial issue among various literary schools. What is literature? What are the qualities that distinguish a literary text from a non-literary one? Does literature have any particular function in society? These are some crucial questions whose answers were supposed to limit and define the scope of literature. However, various literary and critical schools have advanced different and contradictoryRead MoreWhat Is Literature Review?3725 Words   |  15 Pages 4. What is literature review? Discuss in not less than 2000 words Introduction: as a general rule, researchers should first investigate previous research to see whether or not others may have already addressed similar research problems and must acquaint themselves with the relevant literature. Literature review is used to help the researcher link concepts from other sources to his or her research, a good literature review require a balance. A literature review often forms part of a larger researchRead MoreWhat Is Literature Writing?2296 Words   |  10 Pagesdistinguishable from other pieces of writing by their creative, or artistic intent. A piece of literature differs from a specialised treatises on astronomy, political economy, philosophy, or even history, in part because it appeals, not to a particular class of readers only, but to men and women; and in part because, while the object of the treatise is simply to impart knowledge, one ideal end of the piece of literature, whether it also imparts knowledge or not, is to yield aesthetic satisfaction by the mannerRead MoreEssay on What Is Literature and Why Study Literature711 Words   |  3 PagesWhat is Literature? Why Study Literature? At often times, literature is thought of as lackluster works and long books and passages. People often think that literature is one thing, not knowing that it is in actuality composed of several elements that we all use in our daily lives. In order to get a clear understanding of exactly what literature is, we must first identify the definition. According to Merriam- Webster, literature is defined as the body of written works produced in a particularRead MoreWhat Is The Concept Of Change In Literature1627 Words   |  7 Pagesbook is deeper and how the author uses right describing details. Also the effective story-writing of Walter Dean Myers.  Character Theory Chapter â€Å"The Greatest, Muhammad Ali† by Walter Dean Myers, the book is about Muhammad Ali and his life what he did. I think the character theory is not just Ali boxing throughout the book, its also about him standing up to segregation and the Vietnam War. One peice evidence that supports my theory. Is because of his religion he shouldn’t have to go toRead MoreLiterature Review on What Is Strategy1840 Words   |  8 Pagesthe Michael Porter (1996) literature ‘what is strategy’; one of the concept of the organization strategy can be understood as being â€Å"different† from the competitors and so with the different end outcome and added value to the organization as a long-term advantages. It means that, an industry or organization could be operated in a different way than it`s competitor, which will allow to achieve long-term value creation. In other words; strategy can be understood as, what are the organization uniqueRead More What Christian Literature Is Essay4677 Words   |  19 PagesWhat Christian Literature Is Lewis here writes about Christianity and literature, specifically what is Christian literature and how does it differ with secular literature. He read this paper to a religious society at Oxford fairly early in his Christian walk. The question he seems to be answering is, What is Christian literature? His main argument is that the rules for good literature are the same for both Christian and non-Christian. He writes, The rules for writing a good passion play orRead MoreWhat Does Ethnic Literature Mean?994 Words   |  4 PagesWhat does ethnic literature mean? We all have some ethnicity in us that is different than the rest, so doesn’t that mean that all of our literary contributions make up that of American ethnic literature? Before the Civil War, many of the minority people of America started writing poems, songs, and other types of literature that helped describe what life was like in America as an outsider in the â€Å"white† world. These writings became the beginnings of what is now called American ethnic literature.Read MoreWhat ´s a Literature Review? Essays1818 Words   |  8 PagesIntroduction A literature review is a study written by someone on a specific topic by researching relevant literature available and interpreting it (Aveyard, 2010). A research question is developed and by using relevant literature the question is analysed in detail (Aveyard, 2010). The literature review is important because it gives you a shorter version of all relevant literature on the topic chosen, this is so the reader does not have to access the number of literatures used (Aveyard, 2010).Read MoreLiterature Is Not Only What We Read, Reflecting On The1522 Words   |  7 PagesLiterature is not only what we read, reflecting on the context in which it is written in. The role of value of judgement in the reading of literature is almost part of the world, involving systems of valuations between literary texts and authors. Value of judgement is between the rightness and wrongness of something or someone in context with the utility of importance. The value of judgement in the reading of literature is much more complicated, pointing out the

The Love Song Of J. Alfred Prufrock - 1647 Words

The lives of many people are often dictated by their mindset, the fixed disposition or emotional outlook of their current situation. Sitting at the bright end of the spectrum, there are optimist who see the best in everything; thus creating a positive outlook and the mindset to accomplish any goal. However, most people succumbed to a pessimistic point of view. It results in a fear of the unknown, and a sense of meaningless throughout their daily lives. Simple actions such as communication become frustrating tasks, causing many to avoid the situation to protect their emotional well being. This mindset can be seen in T.S. Eliot’s work The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock. The main character, Prufrock, plans to ask the woman he loves the†¦show more content†¦Eliot’s conservative nature caused him to dislike the cheerfulness and optimism of the nineteenth century, and preferred damnation rather than the ugly sight of modern civilization. The Eliot and Prufrock dà © doublement can be seen in the depiction of the setting. The streets are described as half deserted, containing cheap hotels and sawdust restaurants, with yellow smoke engulfing the entire city. The negative depictions of the setting show Eliot’s dislike of rising urbanism and Prufrock’s pessimistic views. Eliot uses this style of writing to explore and freely express his own mind. In Tradition and the Individual Talent, Eliot states that â€Å"private emotions might be intense or painful enough to make it seem necessary to escape from them,† where ‘escape from’ is interpreted as ‘express.’ (Smidt 91) Eliot had a strong desire to reveal his subconscious and private emotions, but â€Å"the full understanding was not meant for the general reader.† Through this creative technique Eliot is able to introduce a character, whose attributes are not as immediately recognizable as the poet, and utilizes this character as a mask or disguise to express some private emotion. In addition, Elisabeth Cardonne-Arlyck’s Mind Your Tongue: Autobiography and New French Lyric, the author creates the perspective to use the character Prufrock as a mobile mask that transforms into existential reality. By connecting Eliot’sShow MoreRelatedThe Love Song Of J. Alfred Prufrock970 Words   |  4 PagesNever in Love When reading the title of T.S Eliot’s â€Å"The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock† it is believed we are in store for a poem of romance and hope. A song that will inspire embrace and warmth of the heart, regretfully this is could not be further from the truth. This poem takes us into the depths of J. Alfred Prufrock, someone who holds faltering doubt and as a result may never come to understand real love. â€Å"The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock† takes us through Prufrock’s mindset and his self-doubtingRead MoreThe Love Song Of J. Alfred Prufrock1072 Words   |  5 Pages We may never be given a second chance to do something daring ever again so we seize the day! However, people like in J. Alfred Prufrock make the attempt to do but it doesn’t work. â€Å"The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock,† written by T.S. Elliot, essentially is about a simple man that wishes to ask a question, although the question is never revealed, the reader is taken on journey the with the speaker, only to find that they have spent a lengthy amount of time of their lives without ever asking theRead MoreThe Love Song Of J. Alfred Prufrock Essay1928 Words   |  8 PagesHuman Voices Wake Us and We Drown’: Community in ‘The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock’,† James Haba contends that the repeated use of â€Å"you†, â€Å"we†, and â€Å"us† in T. S. Eliot’s â€Å"The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock† creates a personal ambience around the reader and Prufrock. Because of this, Haba argues that Eliot’s use of personal pronouns and references produces a sense of community and intimacy between the reader and Prufrock (53), even though Prufrock seemingly struggles with emotions of intimacy andRead MoreThe Love Song Of J. Alfred Prufrock915 Words   |  4 PagesThe Love Song of Alfred Prufrock: Taking the Love out of Song A tragedy in a poem is usually characterized as an event that has a tragic or unhappy ending. They generally are used to teach morals or lessons. T.S. Eliot’s, â€Å"The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock†, is considered a tragedy because of the way Eliot uses four different writing styles: word choice, figurative language, images, and biblical allusions. Using these styles, Eliot acknowledges the tragic endeavor of single, reclusiveRead MoreThe Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock1729 Words   |  7 PagesThe Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock The dramatic monologue â€Å"The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock was written by Thomas Stearns Eliot and published in June of 1915. Eliot was born in St Louis, Missouri on September 26, 1888, where he grew up and lived until the age of eighteen. After high school, Eliot studied at Harvard University in Cambridge, MA and the Sorbonne in Paris, France. Eventually, Eliot ended up in England where he married his wife Vivien and spent the remainder of his lifeRead MoreThe Love Song Of J. Alfred Prufrock1125 Words   |  5 Pagesmodernism. The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock, despite being one of T.S Eliot s earliest publications, still manages to remain one of the most famous. He uses this poem to not only draw out the psychological aspect of members of modern society, but also to draw out the aspect of the time that he lived in. The speaker of this poem is a modern man who feels alone, isolated, and incapable of making decisive actions for himself. Prufrock desires to sp eak to a woman about his love for her, but heRead MoreThe Love Song Of J. Alfred Prufrock986 Words   |  4 PagesIn The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock by T. S. Eliot and Dover Beach by Matthew Arnold the poets utilizes poetic devices to convey their respective themes. Through use of symbols and metaphors, the speaker in The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock displays his fears of the changes brought with the younger generation, and isolation from the changing society. The speaker in Dover Beach, utilizes symbols, metaphors, and similes to state that the younger generation has less faith than the older, and societyRead MoreThe Love Song of J Alfred Prufrock1966 Words   |  8 Pagessymbolism to capture the readers attention in The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock. The poem has a dramatic discourse. The percipience of lifes emptiness is the main theme of the poem. Eliot exhorts the spiritual decomposition by exploring a type of life in death. T. S. Eliot, who in the Clark Lectures notes, Real Irony is an expression of suffering(Lobb, 53), uses irony and symbolism throughout the poem to exemplify the suffering of J. Alfred Prufrock who believes he is filled with spiritual morbidityRead MoreThe Love Song Of J. Alfred Prufrock1005 Words   |  5 Pagesâ€Å"The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock,† published in 1915, was written by a man named T.S. Eliot. The speaker of the poem begins to describe an evening that appears to be somewhat romantic and a little mysterious. As the reader progresses into the poem, the mood soon fades and the reader starts to figure out that this evening is not what they pictured. â€Å"Acquainted with the Night† is a poem written by Robert Frost. The poem was first published in 1927. The speaker of the poem has a similar mood asRead MoreThe Love Song Of J. Alfred Prufrock Essay990 Words   |  4 Pagesâ€Å"The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock† by T.S. Elliot is in part a satire. It was written in the form of a dram atic monologue delivered by the poem’s speaker, J. Alfred Prufrock. It begins with him asking an unknown â€Å"you† to accompany him on a walk. The two walk through town and stumbles upon women talking about Michelangelo at a social event. The women’s bare arms and long dresses show off their knowledge of art. Prufrock wishes to talk to the women and is attracted to them sexually but he is afraid

How to Teach Language Through Poetry Free Essays

The use of literature in the EFL classroom through three different perspectives. Exploring poetry as a strong option.. We will write a custom essay sample on How to Teach Language Through Poetry or any similar topic only for you Order Now Most of the time literature is mainly related to reading and writing, but it may play the same meaningful role in teaching speaking and listening if we design creative activities. Teachers can use literature in the classroom for different purposes such as reading aloud and dramatizing a poem, teaching pronunciation, and many other activities. There are many advantages of using literature in the EFL classroom. To talk about the general advantages of literature can be a broad approach thus; we will not focus on them. Instead, we will have a look at the benefits from three different perspectives: literature as genuine and authentic material, as a good language source and as a bridge to get the learner interested and also, we will mention poetry as a strong option to develop students’ skills. MATERIAL Literature is authentic material that makes students travel to foreign countries and fantastic worlds. This keeps our students motivated and promotes favorable attitude toward learning. Poems, novels, and stories can bring powerful emotional responses to the classroom. Furthermore, students can relate their own real lives to the stories they read. Literary texts help EFL students to improve language learning. However, literature by itself is not enough; teachers need to use imaginative techniques for integrating literature work with language teaching. It is also necessary to bring motivating methodology and to choose the right material to keep students interested. LANGUAGE Language is the most prominent feature of literature. Through literature students learn about syntax and discourse, different structures, functions, and the different ways of connecting ideas, all these help students to develop their writing, listening, reading and speaking skills. As they use literature they learn about language structure without even noticing, this helps to develop their communicative competence, what as we know, is the ultimate aim of English learning. LEARNER In the classroom the use of literature encourages learners to get involved ith the stories they read or hear; the understanding of the words becomes less important as they get involved in trying to figure out what is happening with a character or the end of a story. Students may also like using literature if the activities are oriented towards enjoyment and creativity instead of memorizing or following grammatical rules. Literature can be seen as the bridge between the learner and the culture of the people whose language they are studying; in order to get the l earners interested in the culture, we have to carefully select the literary texts according to their interests and level of comprehension. WHY DO WE USE POETRY WITH THE LANGUAGE LEARNER? Poetry is a short piece of imaginative writing, of a personal nature and laid out in lines. In this sense, poetry is a product of the language and a tool to teach it, a tool to teach grammatical clues and a product when students make a composition of any topic. Most of the poems include metaphors. Students can use cognitive skills by making comparisons between two different things and finding their similarities. The figures of speech used in poetry such as metaphors, similes and personifications help students to have a better understanding of the use of language in an unconscious way. Poetry is a way for teaching and learning basic skills. It can be used as an enjoyable and a rewarding tool with the properties of rhyming and rhythm. It helps students to easily learn with the supra-segmental aspect of the target language, such as stress, pitch, intonation. Using poetry while teaching English can have many benefits: * It encourages creative writing. * It helps students appreciate sounds words and patterns. * It develops phonic skills. * It makes students express feelings and opinions. * It provides a great opportunity to play with language. It reinforces the ability to think and to experiment with students’ understanding of the world. * It helps to acquire vocabulary, creativity and imagination. * it reveals, restates, reinforces and affirms those things which we think are true. * It gives the chance to discover and explore the use of the language. * It generates collaborative activities (pair and group work). Poetry and the four skills We can develop the fou r skills while using poetry: Poems are good to reinforce grammar structures and to improve writing abilities, bringing out creativity and rhythm in the classroom since students have to use their imagination to write. Also, poems help to develop oral and mental capacities. They should be read aloud to reinforce the student’s phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, and vocabulary as well as to sharpen their receptive language skills by learning rhyming, sounds, stresses, pauses, alliteration and syllables. Ideas for using poetry in the classroom * Discussing the theme of a poem and writing out personal experiences related to the theme. * Deducing meanings from the context. * Completing a paraphrase of a poem (cloze-style). * Choosing the best paraphrase among a few. Predicting what’s coming next after reading only one verse at a time. * Ordering jumbled stanzas or lines in the correct sequence. * Rewriting a part of a poem in one’s own words and ideas to offer different messages. * Filling an omitted word, phrase, or line in relation to its context. * Discussing similarities and differences between poems of the same subject or theme. * Identifying any aural or musical qualities i n the poem (rhyme, alliteration, and simile). * Reading aloud poems (choral reading) and making a song. This teaches intonations and stress. Using visuals images such as paintings to help pupils envisage settings, historical periods, etc. * Imitating o parody the style of poem. * Acting the poem: mime, role play, performance, etc. * Making a peer or group composition, writing together. Useful Web sites www. readwritethink. org/lessons/lesson_view. asp? id=391 www. poetryteachers. comh www. poetry4kids. com www. poetryzone. co. uk www. michellehenry. fr/poems. htm www. poemhunter. com www. tooter4kids. com/classroom/poetry_in_the_esl_classroom. htm www. teachingenglish. org. uk/think/literature/poems_prod. html http://www. youtube. com/user/b4uguy#g/u Conclusions Using poetry in the classroom is a great tool, but we cannot forget that we have to choose the right material, so students can maximize their learning. It has to be interesting and adequate for each student level, reading ab out new things is usually interesting for students. Learners will benefit from literature; we are responsible of putting in touch our students with material that catches their interest, so they want to read and listen more, which turns out in further and richer learning. Also, it can create opportunities for personal expression as well as reinforce learner? s knowledge of lexical and grammatical structure giving the opportunity to develop their communicative and cognitive skills. Many teachers think that including poetry in the EFL classroom can be a very heavy and useless work. However, we have analyzed some of the benefits that working with poetry can bring to the learning process. Also, we pointed that not only it is useful but also, students can have great fun if we choose the correct activities and poems. How to cite How to Teach Language Through Poetry, Essay examples

Evolution of Transportation free essay sample

Transportation is a very important part of history, today and the future. Transportation is what his world runs on. Because of transportation many people and businesses are able to survive. But transportation does not just involve business; it can also be for personal means. Think of how mail is delivered or packages are shipped. In one way or another some sort of transportation was involved. But is transportation as important as it was back in the 19th and 20th century when we didn’t have technology like we do today? Technology today has eliminated transportation in the sense that mail does not have to be sent by carrier anymore, if can be sent over the internet. But when we look at transportation in the 19th and 20th century we can definitely see that it changes over the course of history and every day, month or year we progress into a forward motion and we can see that transportation literally wrote history. In this paper I am going to explore and compare how transportation evolved in the world. I will focus on United Kingdom and the United Stated in the 19th and 20th century and show major comparisons on how transportation wrote history and how far the US and UK have come from where they were then to what it is like now. What is the first thing you think of when you hear transportation and history? Like many and me, we think of steam engines, which lead to railroads, railroads lead to coal, coal leads to mining, and it goes on from there. From a brief overview we are all correct. Steam locomotives transformed the industrial revolution. The first steam engine concept was funded by a gentleman by the name of Samuel Homfray but the idea was conceived by Richard Trevithick. â€Å"On February 22, 1804, the locomotive hauled a load of 10 tons of iron, 70 men and five extra wagons the 9 miles between the ironworks at Pen-y-Darron in the town of Merthyr Tydfil, Wales to the bottom of the valley called Abercynnon. It took about two hours. † (Bellis) Although Trevithick had the original idea for this locomotive engine, it was used in what is a called a tramway locomotive which was used for the road, not the railway. George Stephenson is considered to be the inventor of the first steam locomotive engine for railways. â€Å" (Bellis) Stephenson, very poor and uneducated growing up taught himself to read and write and because of this self-motivation lead him to becoming a colliery engine builder. Hired by the Stockton and Darlington Railway line, he would eventually be known for the building the company’s first steam powered locomotive, as the company engineer and would name it the â€Å"Locomotion† in 1814. While all this compelling revolution was taking place in England a gentleman by the name of John Stevens was making history in the US and was recognized as the â€Å"Father of American railroads. † Previous to Stephenson perfecting his locomotive in England Stevens was experimenting on his estate in Hoboken, New Jersey three years prior, which gave him the experience he needed to obtain the first railroad charter in North America in 1815. This set forth the future growth of some of the first operational railroads. â€Å"The first railroad charter in North America was granted to John Stevens in 1815. Grants to others followed, and work soon began on the first operational railroads. † (Bellis) By now you can see that the United States and England at this point were in a nose-to-nose race and very alike in the changes that slowly began to shape history. The birth of the Railway in England began in 1758 with an act for establishing agreements between land owners and proprietors for laying down a wagon-way. This act is known as the Middleton Railway Act of 1758, which granted Charles Branding, owner of Middleton Colliery the right to build a wagon-way from his colliery to his coal-yard. â€Å" nd, as the said Coal-mines and Coal-works lie at the Distance of Two Miles and upwards from the said Field or Place called Casson Close, intended for a Coal-yard or Repository for the said coals so to be sold and disposed of, and it will therefore be absolutely necessary, for carrying the said Proposal into Execution, that a Waggon-Way (such as is used for and about the Coal-works and Coal-mines in the counties of Durham and Northumberland) should be made, framed, laid down and continued, between the said Coal-works and the said Casson Close Coal-yard and Repository, in, over, and through, divers Fields, Lands, and Grounds, in the Parish of Leeds, which belong to, and are the Estate and Property of, divers. Persons, the several Owners and Occupiers whereof have consented and agreed that the said Charles Brandling shall and may have the Liberty and Privilege to make, place, and lay down,such Waggon-way or Ways and from time to time, to repair, maintain, and support, the same Waggon-way or Ways † (Middleton Railway Act of 1758 1758, 2) The Middleton railway is claimed to be the oldest railway in the world. This railway shaped and moved history forward and was a major factor in the industrial revolution. In 1830 The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad was operating, amongst being one of the oldest railroads in the United States, it was one of the first commercial lines in the world. Without this railroad Baltimore faced serious economic unproductivity. In 1843, the US Congress approved money for the first telegraph line to be installed along the right-of-way with the stipulation that the railroad would be able to use the line after its completion, free of use. Many investors invested their money into this railroad through the purchase of stocks to fund this project. The birth of the locomotive named â€Å"Tom Thumb† was conceived and placed on this railroad. It was the first locomotive built in United States. This railroad project was such a success that it became the standard practice for railroading and modern business. The railroad marvel was starting to take shape in both countries and soon changed the way of transportation for the greater. The development of railroads in the UK and US grew at a quick pace. Like the United States, the United Kingdom had plans of constructing a similar railroad that would travel from London to Birmingham. The London and Birmingham Railway company (Lamp;BR) was established in 1833 and would later became part of a larger railroad company, by the name of the London and North Western Railway (Lamp;NWR). The 112 miles of track that ran from Birmingham to London, was the first intercity line built in London. The Lamp;BR offered many incentives like The Bamp;O did in the United States. The main reasons being; it is more efficient for the delivery of goods and makes sources in different areas much more feasible and accessible. The second reason being; making transportation for people faster and more cost effective. John Francis explains in more detail, â€Å"First, the opening of new and distant sources of supply of provisions to the metropolis; Second, Easy, cheap and expeditious travelling; Third; The rapid and economical interchange of the great articles of consumption and of commerce, both internal and external; and Lastly, the connexion by railways, of London with Liverpool, the rich pastures of the center of England, and the greatest manufacturing districts; and, through the port of Liverpool, to afford a most expeditious communication with Ireland. † (Francis 1851, p. 23) The fairly new development of the railroad system in the United Kingdom and United States was starting to prove a financial success using steam engine locomotives. Not only was it doing well financially, it is far more efficient on transferring goods, and It has a bright future as a regular means of transportation for people traveling long distances. A report was done in Manchester, England by three men, James Walker, Robert Stephenson and Joseph Locke on the advantages and costs of using fixed and mobile stream engines in newly constructed areas of Liverpool and Manchester. The general question submitted for Mr. Rastricks and my consideration may be shortly stated in the following words: What, under all circumstances, is the best description of moving power to be employed upon Liverpool and Manchester Railway? The comparative advantages of the different kinds of power applicable to rail-roads generally, is at the present time a very interesting question, the difficulty and importance of which, as a matter of science, are much in increased by the magnitude of your concern, and by the various considerations necessary to be embraced and balanced previously to arriving at any decision that would be useful to you, or consistent with the confidence you have placed in us. (Walker. 1831) In the Bamp;O Railroad alone the railroads massive profits were being realized. â€Å"†¦ as the railroad grew from a capital of $3 million in 1827 to a large enterprise generating $2. 7 million of annual profit on its 380 miles of track in 1854, with 19 million passenger miles. † (Stover 1987) By the later part of the 19th century The United States and United Kingdom were well on there was to creating and constructing larger railroad systems and merging smaller ones together. With this as the main focus The Unite States fathomed a transcontinental railroad even before the treaty with England was settled, which would answer the questions to the boundary of Oregon. â€Å"The possibility of railroads connecting the Atlantic and Pacific coasts was discussed in the Congress even before the treaty with England which settled the question of the Oregon boundary in 1846. † (Haney 1968, 1908-1910) A railroad network so large; it would stretch from coast to coast connecting the Atlantic and Pacific coasts for the first time. This dream came to reality and was known as the Pacific Railroad. This route was known later as the â€Å"Overland Route†. Cooper 2010, 44-45) With the help of Congress, government bonds and land grants, the Pacific Railroad Acts of 1862 and 1864 made this connection all possible; by connecting existing railroads the dream came into reality and would truly shape history and move it forward exponentially. This railroad system would allow greater communication for the postal service, which was greatly developed in the east but lacked in the west and because of other events that took place in history, like the discovery of Gold in California, the railroad looked more appealing. â€Å"The discovery of gold, the settlement of the frontier, and the success of the eastern railroads increased interest in building a railroad to the Pacific. † (Stover 1961, 53) The railroad shrank the US by linking the separate halves causing an increase in trade opportunities between each coast. The transcontinental railroad gave citizens of the US the increased opportunity to act upon setting out to new territories and take land offers; causing a great acceleration to populate the country. Because of this major event in history, wagon trains were replaced, giving the US the jump start that grew into the backbone of cross-country passenger and freight transportation. While the US was concentrating on the Pacific Railroad, the United Kingdom had a plan as well; the Great Western Railway. The Great Western Railway was the link between England and most of Wales. By 1838 after getting an Act of Parliament in 1835, it ran its first train. Later to become in the Western Region of British Railways in 1947, it had acquired a few nicknames; â€Å"God’s Wonderful Railway† and â€Å"Great Way Round†. After many years of trying to convince parliament to let GWR build new broad gauge line, they finally got and Act that allowed them to complete these updates to the tracks. Because of this it changed the future of Great Western Railway. â€Å"Eventually in 1846 an Act was passed initially preventing the GWR from building new broad gauge lines but a compromise was reached which provided for mixed gauge, with three rails instead of two enabling trains of different gauge to travel the same route. † (Great Western history) Throughout the history of ailways in the United Kingdom there were over 120 small railway companies formed that did not succeed very well, especially when interest rates went up and forced investors to invest in government bonds instead of railways; this caused a big strain on many railroad companies. Eventually interest rates went back down and investors had greater incentive to invest in railroad companies once again. But because of this, over a period of time the government took control of the Great Western Railway and by 1921 had formed an act that would eliminate the competition of small companies, the best interest of the railway would be controlled by the government and according to the region a railway was located it would be placed in one of Four Groups; the â€Å"Big Four†. One of the groups kept the same name; â€Å"Great Western Railway. The other three groups were, â€Å"London, Midland, and Scottish Railway†, â€Å"London and North Eastern Railway†, and â€Å"Southern Railway. † During World War I these four major railway groups were controlled by the government. According to the Act of 1921, 1. -(1) With a view to the reorganization and more efficient and economical working of the railway system of Great Britain railways shall be formed into groups in accordance with the provisions of this Act, and the principal railway companies in each group shall be amalgamated, and other companies absorbed in manner provided by this Act. (Railway Act 1921 1921) In 1948 the â€Å"big four† railway companies were nationalized to form what is known as the result of the Transport Act of 1947; British Railways. While the United States passed an act in 1862 to construct a transcontinental railroad called the Pacific Railroad Acts and The United Kingdom monopolized every small railroad company with the Act of 1921 and later forming British Railways, It is very clear to see how railroads have shaped history as to what it is today. We can notice all throughout Europe and Asia that locomotives are slowly becoming once again a general means of transportation for the ease of human travel; both work and pleasure. It seems that there tends to be a pattern as far as advancements in technology and new sources concerning the United States, and Europe, including the United Kingdom; Europe, making new discoveries or transforming old ideas into something new. Now with new advancements of technologies in electric trains, will the United States be soon to follow the evolving trend that our some of our closest neighbors are creating?

Vietnam Bond Market free essay sample

In recent years, the issue of efficiently mobilizing capital has become the concern of all companies. There are some ways of doing this: borrowing from the banks, issuing stocks or issuing bonds. However, when the interest rate of borrowing from banks is very high due to high inflation, together with the stock market is quite instable; calling for capital from bond market is much more preferred by investors. In the context of this report, some major points regarding the bond market in Vietnam are presented. Firstly, a common picture about the Vietnam bond market is drawn. Next come the types of bonds and major participants in this market. Finally, several ways by which bonds are issued are described in details. I/ Overview of Vietnam bond market The Vietnam bond market was established in 2000, but it only developed sharply after 2002 when the government allowed issuing many types of bonds and especially after the appearance of the Ho Chi Minh stock exchange. We will write a custom essay sample on Vietnam Bond Market or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Recently, the outstanding volume of bonds has increased rapidly, as shown in the graph below. Figure 1. Bonds outstanding volume and bond outstanding/ GDP. Source: Ministry of Finance of Vietnam) Up to the year 2006, the proportion of outstanding bond volume over GDP reached the figure of 13%, in comparison with only 3% in 2001. Nevertheless, compared with the Vietnam stock market that accounts for more than 40% of the total GDP, that of bonds is very low. In particular, this rate of Vietnam is far below the level of other countries in Asia. In most Asia countries, the bond accounts for more than half of the total GDP whereas in Vietnam, it takes less than 15% of GDP. Figure 2. Outstanding bond volume/GDP in some Asia countries. Source: Ministry of Finance of Vietnam) All things considered, one of the main features easily to be realized in Vietnam now is that the bond market has not been attractive enough to most investors. Yet, according to many specialists, it is likely that this market will become an extremely attractive capital-mobilizing channel in the near future. II/ Types of bonds At the moment, there are three main types of bonds in Vietnam: government bonds, municip al bonds and corporate bonds. Here comes the pie chart showing the proportion of each types contributing to Vietnam bond market. Figure 3: Proportion of different types of bonds (Source: Ministry of Finance of Vietnam) As can be seen, the government bonds, which are issued by both the State Treasury of Vietnam and the Vietnam Development Bank, dominate almost the market with 64% and 18% respectively. The municipal bonds currently issued by three local governments including Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh and Dong Nai, account for only 7% of the total. The rest 11% belongs to the corporate bonds which are issued by the companies. Nevertheless, there are many intensive conditions of the government for issuing corporate bonds. Therefore, until now there are only 10 companies who meet enough conditions to issue corporate bonds, such as EVN, Vinashin, Song Da Corporation, etc. In comparison with other countries in the region, the structure of Vietnam bond market is quite different. Figure 4: Structure of bond market in some Asia countries (Source: Ministry of Finance of Vietnam) While in Korea, Singapore and especially Malaysia, the contribution of government and corporate bonds to the market is quite balance, that of Vietnam shows a significant difference. Government bonds dominate more than three forts of the market, and the rest 11% belongs to corporate bonds. That large disparity warns that we are dealing with a strange situation in bond market and some actions need to be taken to balance the two types of bonds. III/ Major participants 1. Individual investors According to the SSC, until September 2008, the number of investors had increased by 47 per cent to 460,000 compared with last December. In fact, when in many other countries, institutional investors usually make up a large part of the securities market, the situation in Vietnam is on the contrary with individual holding 70% of the total accounts. However, Vietnamese individual investors still prove to be unprofessional for some reasons: Main source of capital usually coming from banks, lack of reliable information about the market, limitation in accurate evaluation of the value of bonds and the bond issuing organizations. Therefore, they have tendency to invest following the majority: sell immediately when prices of securities decrease and buy right away when prices increase. This will lead to the high fluctuation of the market, so easily results in the losses suffering of many investors. 2. Fund managers Fund management is the professional management of various securities (shares, bonds etc. ) to meet specified investment goals for the benefit of the investors. Fund management companies play an important part in the development of securities market. Since the establishment of VietFund Management, the first fund management company in Vietnam in 2003, until now, 38 fund managers have been granted operation licenses by SSC. Among them, FPT Fund Management Joint Stock Company has the highest chartered capital with 110 billion VND and Lotus IMC has lowest charter capital with 5 billion VND. . Brokers Broker has recently occupied the position of the hottest career for youngsters, although it is still new in Vietnam. The term â€Å"broker† is used to indicate a qualified and regulated professional who buys and sells all kinds of securities through market makers or Agency Only Firms on behalf of investors. Brokers play a leading role in developing securities market, and since the esta blishment of bond market in Vietnam, the number of brokers has increased rapidly, with hundreds of people working for nearly 100 brokerages (according to vietbao. net). In 2008, due to the new regulation of The Ministry of Finance, brokerages are now the main target for the bond market. However, the lack of knowledge and experience has left Vietnamese brokers with some fatal weakness: limited in quantity, unable to perform all the service (in Vietnam, brokers only concentrate on execution, instead of advisory and discretionary dealing), lack of certificate and qualification, etc. IV/ The number of companies listed There exists an inequality in the number of securities in the Vietnam. Over 300 stocks and 600 bonds are now listed even though the stock market is more active than that of bond. Another noticeable feature is that bond market has only 10 corporate listings, compared to over 600 government listings, in which most issuers are state-owned corporations. V/ Issuance of bonds Basically, there are two ways of issuing bonds: private placement and public offering 1. Private placement This is the direct sale of securities to a limited number of investors, often the institutions such as mutual funds or insurance companies. Compared to public bonds, those bonds are more likely to have call provision. The issuers usually take their bonds back before the maturity date. Certainly, the bonds that are more callable are riskier because the investors whose bonds have been called have to face with reinvestment risk. However, investors can get higher rate of return as compensation for the risk they bear. Definitely, such bonds are more in favor of the risk-lovers. 2. Public offering Public offering means the issuance in which securities can be exchanged widely among the public. The separation of private placement and public offering aims at ensuring that the companies using public offering must have high-quality, good operations in order to protect the public from the default risk. Public offering can take the forms of underwriting or auction. 2. 1. Underwriting When a company wants to go public, the first thing it does is to hire an intermediary known as underwriter. In most situations, the underwriters are the investment banks that act as the middleman between the public and the corporation. If the investment bank and company reach an agreement to do underwriting then investment bank will buy the new securities for an agreed price, and resell them to the public at a markup, bearing all of the expenses associated with the sale. The company gets the guaranteed funds even if the investment bank does not sell all of the securities. Thus, the investment bank takes a significant risk in a firm commitment. 2. 2. Auction Auctions are designed to minimize the cost of financing the corporate debt by promoting broad, competitive bidding and liquid secondary market trading. A review of the auction process from the announcement of a new issue to the delivery of securities reveals how these objectives have been met. However, in the recent times, many of Vietnamese government bond auctions have not been successful. The major cause is supposed that the government can not match the coupon rate of private investors. Creditors usually applied a high level of coupon that the government can not offer. Both customers and suppliers cannot meet at the common point to bring bonds to market. Conclusion There have been much more debate among the issues of Vietnam bond market and some discussion points should be noticed. Regarding the domination of government compared to corporate bonds, two main causes have been drawn. Firstly, there are many intensive conditions for companies to issue corporate bonds. Beside the requirement of owning at least 10 billion chartered capital and making a profit of the previous year, the companies need to have no bad debts over 1 year and prepare the audited financial statements of the last year to ensure transparency for investors. Secondly, default risk is higher with corporate bonds than government bonds that also means a higher interest rate of corporate bonds. Therefore, very few companies can afford this type of cost and few companies issue corporate bonds as a result. Concerning the difference between Treasury Bills and Treasury Bonds, even they are both issued by the Government and bearing no default risk, their maturity dates are far different. Treasury Bills have the short terms of 3 months or 6 months whereas Treasury Bonds have long terms of 5 years, 10 years or more. The issue of high inflation has a significant influence on Vietnam bond market, one of which is the decrease in value of bonds. Apparently, the price of bond is equal to the coupon divided by the bond yield. Coupon is fixed, so when inflation rate is high, leading to high bond yield, the bond price falls accordingly. Noticeably, although bonds have lower default risk premium than stocks, their liquidity risk premium is considerably higher than that of stock. The low liquidity of bonds compared to stocks can be explained by two reasons. Firstly, the stock market is much more active than bond which pushes up the transactions of stocks among investors and increases liquidity of stocks. More importantly, the value of bonds in each transaction is quite large (about 500 million VND for each), few companies can afford them and therefore, makes it harder to exchange bonds in the market. After purchasing those bonds, investors tend to hold them until the maturity dates, which significantly reduces the liquidity of bonds. Moreover, it has been asked the reasons why the rate of individual investors in Vietnam is much higher than other countries (70% and 30% respectively). It is supposed that buying bonds is almost compulsory with individual employees in the workplace. Moreover, investment funds have not yet implemented their roles effectively in Vietnam, so small source of capital can not be gathered to make up the market for institutional investors. It is also important to differentiate between the brokers and market makers or dealers. The dealers act as both buyer and seller of bonds. They purchase bonds from investors and then resell them at a higher price to others. Meanwhile, the brokers do not actually make any purchasing, and only act as intermediaries between investors and dealers. Finally, the question about the difference in interest rate of bonds issued under private placement and public offering was raised. As mentioned in the report, the holders of private placement bonds often bear reinvestment risk, which in turn leads to higher return or higher interest rate. That is the reason why the interest rate of bonds issued by private placement is usually higher than that of public offering. All in all, there still exists a lot of concerning around the topic of the Vietnam bond market. General speaking, this market has not developed accordingly to its potential. However, with the efforts of Vietnam Government to enhance the bond market’ operations, a bright perspective has been open to this field. Vietnam Bond Market free essay sample In recent years, the issue of efficiently mobilizing capital has become the concern of all companies. There are some ways of doing this: borrowing from the banks, issuing stocks or issuing bonds. However, when the interest rate of borrowing from banks is very high due to high inflation, together with the stock market is quite instable; calling for capital from bond market is much more preferred by investors. In the context of this report, some major points regarding the bond market in Vietnam are presented. Firstly, a common picture about the Vietnam bond market is drawn. Next come the types of bonds and major participants in this market. Finally, several ways by which bonds are issued are described in details. I/ Overview of Vietnam bond market The Vietnam bond market was established in 2000, but it only developed sharply after 2002 when the government allowed issuing many types of bonds and especially after the appearance of the Ho Chi Minh stock exchange. We will write a custom essay sample on Vietnam Bond Market or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Recently, the outstanding volume of bonds has increased rapidly, as shown in the graph below. Figure 1. Bonds outstanding volume and bond outstanding/ GDP. Source: Ministry of Finance of Vietnam) Up to the year 2006, the proportion of outstanding bond volume over GDP reached the figure of 13%, in comparison with only 3% in 2001. Nevertheless, compared with the Vietnam stock market that accounts for more than 40% of the total GDP, that of bonds is very low. In particular, this rate of Vietnam is far below the level of other countries in Asia. In most Asia countries, the bond accounts for more than half of the total GDP whereas in Vietnam, it takes less than 15% of GDP. Figure 2. Outstanding bond volume/GDP in some Asia countries. Source: Ministry of Finance of Vietnam) All things considered, one of the main features easily to be realized in Vietnam now is that the bond market has not been attractive enough to most investors. Yet, according to many specialists, it is likely that this market will become an extremely attractive capital-mobilizing channel in the near future. II/ Types of bonds At the moment, there are three main types of bonds in Vietnam: government bonds, municipal bonds and corporate bonds. Here comes the pie chart showing the proportion of each types contributing to Vietnam bond market. Figure 3: Proportion of different types of bonds (Source: Ministry of Finance of Vietnam) As can be seen, the government bonds, which are issued by both the State Treasury of Vietnam and the Vietnam Development Bank, dominate almost the market with 64% and 18% respectively. The municipal bonds currently issued by three local governments including Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh and Dong Nai, account for only 7% of the total. The rest 11% belongs to the corporate bonds which are issued by the companies. Nevertheless, there are many intensive conditions of the government for issuing corporate bonds. Therefore, until now there are only 10 companies who meet enough conditions to issue corporate bonds, such as EVN, Vinashin, Song Da Corporation, etc. In comparison with other countries in the region, the structure of Vietnam bond market is quite different. Figure 4: Structure of bond market in some Asia countries (Source: Ministry of Finance of Vietnam) While in Korea, Singapore and especially Malaysia, the contribution of government and corporate bonds to the market is quite balance, that of Vietnam shows a significant difference. Government bonds dominate more than three forts of the market, and the rest 11% belongs to corporate bonds. That large disparity warns that we are dealing with a strange situation in bond market and some actions need to be taken to balance the two types of bonds. III/ Major participants 1. Individual investors According to the SSC, until September 2008, the number of investors had increased by 47 per cent to 460,000 compared with last December. In fact, when in many other countries, institutional investors usually make up a large part of the securities market, the situation in Vietnam is on the contrary with individual holding 70% of the total accounts. However, Vietnamese individual investors still prove to be unprofessional for some reasons: Main source of capital usually coming from banks, lack of reliable information about the market, limitation in accurate evaluation of the value of bonds and the bond issuing organizations. Therefore, they have tendency to invest following the majority: sell immediately when prices of securities decrease and buy right away when prices increase. This will lead to the high fluctuation of the market, so easily results in the losses suffering of many investors. 2. Fund managers Fund management is the professional management of various securities (shares, bonds etc. ) to meet specified investment goals for the benefit of the investors. Fund management companies play an important part in the development of securities market. Since the establishment of VietFund Management, the first fund management company in Vietnam in 2003, until now, 38 fund managers have been granted operation licenses by SSC. Among them, FPT Fund Management Joint Stock Company has the highest chartered capital with 110 billion VND and Lotus IMC has lowest charter capital with 5 billion VND. . Brokers Broker has recently occupied the position of the hottest career for youngsters, although it is still new in Vietnam. The term â€Å"broker† is used to indicate a qualified and regulated professional who buys and sells all kinds of securities through market makers or Agency Only Firms on behalf of investors. Brokers play a leading role in developing securities market, and since the esta blishment of bond market in Vietnam, the number of brokers has increased rapidly, with hundreds of people working for nearly 100 brokerages (according to vietbao. net). In 2008, due to the new regulation of The Ministry of Finance, brokerages are now the main target for the bond market. However, the lack of knowledge and experience has left Vietnamese brokers with some fatal weakness: limited in quantity, unable to perform all the service (in Vietnam, brokers only concentrate on execution, instead of advisory and discretionary dealing), lack of certificate and qualification, etc. IV/ The number of companies listed There exists an inequality in the number of securities in the Vietnam. Over 300 stocks and 600 bonds are now listed even though the stock market is more active than that of bond. Another noticeable feature is that bond market has only 10 corporate listings, compared to over 600 government listings, in which most issuers are state-owned corporations. V/ Issuance of bonds Basically, there are two ways of issuing bonds: private placement and public offering 1. Private placement This is the direct sale of securities to a limited number of investors, often the institutions such as mutual funds or insurance companies. Compared to public bonds, those bonds are more likely to have call provision. The issuers usually take their bonds back before the maturity date. Certainly, the bonds that are more callable are riskier because the investors whose bonds have been called have to face with reinvestment risk. However, investors can get higher rate of return as compensation for the risk they bear. Definitely, such bonds are more in favor of the risk-lovers. 2. Public offering Public offering means the issuance in which securities can be exchanged widely among the public. The separation of private placement and public offering aims at ensuring that the companies using public offering must have high-quality, good operations in order to protect the public from the default risk. Public offering can take the forms of underwriting or auction. 2. 1. Underwriting When a company wants to go public, the first thing it does is to hire an intermediary known as underwriter. In most situations, the underwriters are the investment banks that act as the middleman between the public and the corporation. If the investment bank and company reach an agreement to do underwriting then investment bank will buy the new securities for an agreed price, and resell them to the public at a markup, bearing all of the expenses associated with the sale. The company gets the guaranteed funds even if the investment bank does not sell all of the securities. Thus, the investment bank takes a significant risk in a firm commitment. 2. 2. Auction Auctions are designed to minimize the cost of financing the corporate debt by promoting broad, competitive bidding and liquid secondary market trading. A review of the auction process from the announcement of a new issue to the delivery of securities reveals how these objectives have been met. However, in the recent times, many of Vietnamese government bond auctions have not been successful. The major cause is supposed that the government can not match the coupon rate of private investors. Creditors usually applied a high level of coupon that the government can not offer. Both customers and suppliers cannot meet at the common point to bring bonds to market. Conclusion There have been much more debate among the issues of Vietnam bond market and some discussion points should be noticed. Regarding the domination of government compared to corporate bonds, two main causes have been drawn. Firstly, there are many intensive conditions for companies to issue corporate bonds. Beside the requirement of owning at least 10 billion chartered capital and making a profit of the previous year, the companies need to have no bad debts over 1 year and prepare the audited financial statements of the last year to ensure transparency for investors. Secondly, default risk is higher with corporate bonds than government bonds that also means a higher interest rate of corporate bonds. Therefore, very few companies can afford this type of cost and few companies issue corporate bonds as a result. Concerning the difference between Treasury Bills and Treasury Bonds, even they are both issued by the Government and bearing no default risk, their maturity dates are far different. Treasury Bills have the short terms of 3 months or 6 months whereas Treasury Bonds have long terms of 5 years, 10 years or more. The issue of high inflation has a significant influence on Vietnam bond market, one of which is the decrease in value of bonds. Apparently, the price of bond is equal to the coupon divided by the bond yield. Coupon is fixed, so when inflation rate is high, leading to high bond yield, the bond price falls accordingly. Noticeably, although bonds have lower default risk premium than stocks, their liquidity risk premium is considerably higher than that of stock. The low liquidity of bonds compared to stocks can be explained by two reasons. Firstly, the stock market is much more active than bond which pushes up the transactions of stocks among investors and increases liquidity of stocks. More importantly, the value of bonds in each transaction is quite large (about 500 million VND for each), few companies can afford them and therefore, makes it harder to exchange bonds in the market. After purchasing those bonds, investors tend to hold them until the maturity dates, which significantly reduces the liquidity of bonds. Moreover, it has been asked the reasons why the rate of individual investors in Vietnam is much higher than other countries (70% and 30% respectively). It is supposed that buying bonds is almost compulsory with individual employees in the workplace. Moreover, investment funds have not yet implemented their roles effectively in Vietnam, so small source of capital can not be gathered to make up the market for institutional investors. It is also important to differentiate between the brokers and market makers or dealers. The dealers act as both buyer and seller of bonds. They purchase bonds from investors and then resell them at a higher price to others. Meanwhile, the brokers do not actually make any purchasing, and only act as intermediaries between investors and dealers. Finally, the question about the difference in interest rate of bonds issued under private placement and public offering was raised. As mentioned in the report, the holders of private placement bonds often bear reinvestment risk, which in turn leads to higher return or higher interest rate. That is the reason why the interest rate of bonds issued by private placement is usually higher than that of public offering. All in all, there still exists a lot of concerning around the topic of the Vietnam bond market. General speaking, this market has not developed accordingly to its potential. However, with the efforts of Vietnam Government to enhance the bond market’ operations, a bright perspective has been open to this field.

Experiential Learning Theory The WritePass Journal

Experiential Learning Theory Experiential Learning Theory IntroductionDescription of a case from my teachingLearning theory applicable to my teaching caseExperiential Learning Theory (Kolb)Principles of Experiential Learning:Four Stages of Kolb’s Learning CycleConcrete experience:Reflective observation:Abstract conceptualization:Active experimentation:Four Types of Learning Styles (Kolb, 1976)AssimilatorsConvergers   AccommodatorsDivergersRelevance of KOLB Learning theorY TO MY CASEConcrete Experience:Reflection: Abstract Conceptualisation:Active Experimentation:Some Practical Difficulties and Potential ImprovementsReferencesRelated Introduction It is difficult to define learning but I understand from my teachers that it is the acquisition of knowledge and skills from instructions or studies. The teachers have an inclination and desire to help our learners acquire, maintain or develop the knowledge, skills and attitudes that they need in the context of their everyday work (Mann 2002). According to Knowles, learning is broadly defined as the occurrence of change in a person with regards to behaviour, skills, knowledge and attitude. (Knowles 2005).    Description of a case from my teaching This was an intra-operative training for a Core Medical Trainee doctor (CT Doctor) in the reconstruction of tissue defect using a local skin flap. The trainee had never done this procedure before independently but had seen similar procedures being done and is regularly seeing the postoperative results of cases operated by me and other colleagues in the out patient follow up clinics. The aim of this teaching was a one to one surgical skill teaching of how to do a rhomboid flap, which is a transposition flap to reconstruct the defect following excision of a lesion. Though it was a teaching of an operative technique, it involved three stages namely pre-operative planning, per-operative practical procedure and post-operative documentation and reflection on the performance. The student usually is required to have preliminary prior knowledge about the skin anatomy including the components of flaps, blood circulation and different types of flap configurations based on the design (transposition, rotation and advancement flaps). The student is taught about the preparation on the operating table, draping the operation site, observing all aseptic precautions, removal of the skin lesion (this part is done me in this teaching session), planning of the flap, raising the flap, insetting the flap to fill the defect, suturing the flap and donor site, applying the dressing, documentation of operation notes, reflection on the performance and agreeing on what changes needed to improve the performance next time. Learning theory applicable to my teaching case Experiential Learning Theory (Kolb) The experiential learning theory was developed by Kolb emphasizing the importance of experience in the learning process and based his theory on the work of Dewey, Lewin and Piaget (Kolb 1984). Kolb offers a working definition of learning as â€Å"a process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience† and emphasizes the importance of adaptation, as knowledge is not static but changing, as we learn and relearn through the process of ongoing experience which changes the practice. Kolb built this upon six propositions (Kolb 1984): Learning is best conceived as a process, not in terms of outcomes    Learning is a continuous process grounded in experience    The process of learning requires the resolution of conflicts between dialectically opposed modes of adaptation to the world    Learning is an holistic process of adaptation to the world    Learning results from synergistic transactions between the person and the environment    Learning is a process of creating knowledge Principles of Experiential Learning: Learning occurs best when people learn through their own experiences and from the reflections of their own experiences rather than through lectures and theories to generate knowledge and skills. In learning what the learners do is more important rather than what they know Experiential learning makes the learners’ behaviour and attitudes explicit so that they can be assessed to construct it better for the future experiences. It is not just sufficient to teach the learner what to do but they need to be actually shown how to do and also how to improve it. The cyclical learning offers the learners continuous improvement by repeating the learning wheel over and over. Continuous use of the experiential learning cycle guides individuals and groups or teams towards improved performance and high quality outcomes. Experiential learning is not just about acquiring knowledge and skills but generating experience in the learner to discover what it is like, how it made them feel and what it meant to them, which in turn is the key to generating greater skills. The new experiences not only generate new ideas but also dispose of or modify the old ones. Experiential learning gives importance to the key aspect of learning which is to achieve change in behaviour and attitude by the holistic approach of addressing cognitive, emotional and the physical aspect of the learner. Many learners feel experiential learning process gives a sense of satisfaction, reward or gift because of its value is appreciated by the learner as a vital learning tool Kolb developed a cyclical learning process consisting of four stages (abilities): Concrete experience (abilities)    â€Å"Doing something† Reflective observation (abilities)    â€Å"Observing and reflecting on the action† Abstract conceptualization (abilities) â€Å"Thinking and finding where the action fits in with theory† Active experimentation (abilities) â€Å"Planning to implement the idea to solve actual problems The learning can begin at any of the four stages (Kolb Fry 1975) but needs to go through all four stages to complete and progress further for learning to continue. Kolb and Fry developed four types of learning styles people use and they can be placed between concrete experience and abstract conceptualization; and active experimentation and reflective observation as shown below: Four Stages of Kolb’s Learning Cycle Concrete experience: The learner performs an activity and gains experience. The activity can be a demonstration, a case study or learning a skill such as assisting an operation or performing an operation under supervision. The learner links this awareness or experience with his prior knowledge or experience resulting in a new experience or knowledge and this forms a basis for future experience. Reflective observation: The learner reflects upon the performance as a self-reflection, with that of the observer who is usually the teacher or from a small group in the form of discussion or constructive criticism. This is very important for the learner to link in with his prior knowledge and experience and move forward.    Abstract conceptualization: The learner develops a concept or theory from the knowledge gained through this experience and makes some plans to alter or change his future practice. Active experimentation: At this stage the learner puts into practice of the lessons learnt from this experience to experiment the solutions to improve the new experiential cycle. Four Types of Learning Styles (Kolb, 1976) Assimilators (Abstract conceptualisation reflective observation): This group has a strong ability to learn better when provided with sound logical theories to practice and reflect. They are concerned with abstract concepts than people. Convergers   (Abstract conceptualisation active experimentation): This group learn better when exposed to practical applications of concepts and theories. They are focussed on solving specific problems by reasoning. Accommodators (Concrete experience active experimentation): Their greatest strength is doing things and learn better when given opportunity to have â€Å"hands-on† experiences. They perform well when required to react to immediate circumstances Divergers (Concrete experience reflective observation): This group is strong in imaginative ability and are good at generating ideas and seeing things from different perspectives. They are interested in people. Though there are different predominant styles of learning in each learner, there is considerable overlap and mixture of different situations that is likely to complement the learning. Kolb’s model provides an invaluable practical framework for designing experiential learning for adults. Relevance of KOLB Learning theorY TO MY CASE Concrete Experience: The CT doctor started from the stage of concrete experience when the flap procedure was planned. He has seen me doing the flap procedure before and he has also assisted me to perform this procedure before. We had discussion pre-operatively, which triggered his pre-existing knowledge about the flap and his prior knowledge of anatomy, technique of flap elevation, insetting, and suturing in place. This is followed by the operative procedure done by him and I assisted him. This practical experience imparted new level of understanding to him and assimilated with his prior knowledge. Reflection: After the completion of the operation and documentation, we had time to reflect on this new experience and consolidate the experience with the prior knowledge to form a new knowledge.   During the discussion, I have acknowledged the good points and both have agreed the importance of tissue handling, suture placements in relation to tissue planes and the need to trim off the excess bulky tissues in the flap to fill the defect better. Abstract Conceptualisation: As a result of above discussion and feedback, we have identified areas for improvement as mentioned above for the transposition flap. We have agreed that I will assist him again in another similar case when he can apply those principles during the procedure. I also introduced the concept of rotation flap and advancement flap as in some cases, after removal of lesion and creating the defect, it is not always possible to perform transposition flap. The learner has some prior theoretical knowledge about the configuration and surgical technique of rotation and advancement flaps. I gave further guidance regarding reading materials – flap books and specific articles. This fine-tuning has helped in preparing the learner for active experimentation in a new cycle. Active Experimentation: After two weeks, the learner developed further reading related to the new concepts following the above discussion and attended my skin cancer clinics. We selected two cases needing operation to remove the lesion and reconstruction using local flaps. We applied his knowledge and prior experience to formulate the new treatment plan to carry out very soon. This has prepared him for the new encounter of active experimentation stage described by Kolb. Some Practical Difficulties and Potential Improvements I have come across problems and difficulties during the flap teaching sessions and I have enumerated them with the possible solutions, which I hope will improve my future teaching and make it more beneficial to the trainee and safer to the patients. Reflection of the learners with that of teachers’ observation is an important part of this learning cycle. Problem: The operative technique teaching of the flap to cover a tissue defect is mostly done under local anaesthesia with the patient awake. It is not always easy to talk all the aspects explicitly during the procedure. How to overcome it: One of the options would be to plan the first cycle of operative learning in patient who wanted the procedure under general anaesthesia. Problem: In some instances we have missed out this session of reflection due to lack of time, busy operating list and the learner had to attend ward patients or dressing clinic patients. How to overcome it: I need to plan this teaching session when the learner has a protected time to attend my appropriate theatre session. In cases of unforeseen circumstances causing this, I instruct the learner to write down his thoughts of reflection of the session and send it by email which will enable me give my impressions to him personally at a mutually agreeable time to move forward with an agreed plan for future experiences. The other option is to hand over the further continuity of learning to another colleague. Problem: Quite often Core Trainees in Plastic Surgery do not attend the Dressing Clinic to see the post-operative results when the patient returns for the suture removal and they also miss the opportunity when the patient returns to out patient clinic subsequently for pathology results. Reviewing the patients on these two occasions is equally important to complete the learning process. How to overcome it: I have started including in the post-operative instruction to call that particular Trainee doctor (for specific cases) when the patient returns for suture removal. Another option is to book the patient into my dressing clinic session and encourage the learner to attend. I also inform the trainee that the assessment form will be completed after he has seen the patients’ post-operative result. This is an incentive for them to attend the clinic. Problem: Kolb cycle may be difficult to apply to all trainees and there are some cultural differences the way the trainees are trained, for example trainees from Indian subcontinent or from Europe. How to overcome it: I will use spiral method of learning proposed by Dewey in this type of surgical technique teaching so that the learner follows it through the spirals to modify and improve the quality of outcome performance. I would also incorporate four-stage process of teaching in theatre (Walker Peyton, 1998) as part of the Kolb cycle depending on the pre-existing experience of the learner. Stage I involves my demonstration of the normal procedure at normal speed. In stage II, I will carry out the procedure again with full explanation and trainee is encouraged to ask questions. I perform the procedure for a third time during the III stage with trainee describing the steps, being questioned on key issues and providing any necessary correction. This stage continues until I am satisfied that the trainee fully understands the procedure. Now we move on to the final stage when the trainee carries out the procedure under close supervision, describing each step before it is undertaken . Thus this drilling of four-stage surgical skill development is followed by repetition to increase the confidence and further practicing of the skills to master it to apply in different situations. I will employ flexibility as to where to start the training depending on the individual trainees’ abilities and their prior knowledge and experience. Here is a framework I plan to use for the future flap teaching sessions:       References    Mann K V. (2002) Thinking about learning: Implications for Principle-Based Professional Education, The Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions, 22: 69-76 Knowles M S, Holton E F, Swanson R A. (2005) What is Learning, The Adult Learner, Elsevier, Burlington, MA Kolb D A. (1984) Experiential Learning, Experience as the source of Learning and Development, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey Kolb D A. (1976) The Learning Style Inventory: Technical Manual, Boston, Ma.: McBer. Kolb D A. (1981) Learning styles and disciplinary differences. in A. W. Chickering (ed.) The Modern American College, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Kolb D A, Fry R. (1975) Toward an applied theory of experiential learning;, in C. Cooper (ed.) Theories of Group Process, London: John Wiley. Walker M, Peyton R. (1998) Teaching in the Theatre, Teaching and learning in medical practice, Manticore Europe, Pages 171-180

Review the sound recording and music industry Essay

Review the sound recording and music industry - Essay Example Another important role in the music/audio industry that requires music technology and audio recording skills is the role of the Sound engineers. They must also possess the ability to recognise and describe the quality of musical sounds and other sounds, in order to be able to adjust and balance these sounds creatively. â€Å"Sound engineers also need to listen for different types of distortion. Music producers need to listen for intonation and timing problems, and DJs need to refine their listening skills in order to match speeds and keys and to recognise points at which to mix.† (http://www.wolvcoll.ac.uk/international/courses/music_tech.html) When working in the audio/music industry, whether as a recording or creative artist, or even in a managerial or supporting role, it is vital to plan and work towards the production of effective final studio products, so that these products can be marketed to the right target audience. Thus, during the planning of a recording session, or any music project, â€Å"effective teamwork is essential and is only possible when everyone involved understands the process.† (http://www.ehow.com/way_5471252_effective-teamwork-care-settings.html).

How Do We Know What We Think We Know Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

How Do We Know What We Think We Know - Essay Example Most of us get our daily news from a variety of sources. At one time, these sources were limited to perhaps one of three nightly news programs and/or one of a few available newspapers. Everyone essentially read or heard the same thing. Today, news is available everywhere, from serious news programs to satire comedy to internet web pages to Twitter text messages. What holds true for our general news also holds true for what we think of scientific news. New approaches, policies, and inventions are quickly reported on and then we're off to a new topic. If they've managed to capture our attention at all, we always have the option of Googling for them during the commercial breaks and are then at the mercy of the search engine spiders, delivering ranked results based on the highest bidder or the most popular. What we know about the world of science today is largely based on where we get our information from. This, in turn, strongly influences our decisions when voting in elections, when ch oosing to support various non-profit or beginning businesses, and in shaping our overall view of the world and where it's heading. Yet how do we know that information is correct? What is it about the way that the news is conveyed that convinces us we have been given the truth? In order to resist naive belief and make better decisions for ourselves and the world at large, we need to carefully examine the scientific stories we read, such as those which warn of global warming, as a means of understanding the various ways journalists use words to shape our understanding. The problem of global warming has been written about since at least the 1970s, but it is starting to gain some ground in more recent years as evidence becomes harder to deny or refute. For example, an article in the New York Times published in March 2012 uses terms that make it clear the author is still trying to convince his readers that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity and yet provide few opti ons as to what else might be contributing to the evidence found. The evidence that the author is attempting to convince his audience is found in the second sentence of the article: "Warnings from the scientific community are becoming louder, as an increasing body of science points to rising dangers from the ongoing buildup of human-related greenhouse gases - produced mainly by the burning of fossil fuels and forests." Not only does the author squarely place blame on "human-related greenhouse gases," leaving no room for argument or other possibilities, the sources of these gases are specifically named, further removing any possibility for argument. While it is possible that the author simply chose this form of expression as a means of concisely identifying his topic in keeping with Grice's (1975) maxim of quantity, to provide just as much information as necessary to make the meaning clear, it also reveals evidence of previous conversation. For example, it is not necessarily important that the term human-related be included in the above-quoted sentence to remain in accord with Grice's maxim, yet the inclusion here suggests either recency (Garrod and Anderson, 1987), in that the author may have been recently discussing the issue.

What Problems Face Historians History Essay

What Problems Face Historians History Essay History may be the past but the reflections on that past and the different mediums that inform and shape us about the past must be examined for their veracity and usefulness. These documents and sources present the historian with many problems as they are often used as a cumulative examination of a period under study. Yet what are the difficulties that are inherent in these sources and testimonies. Both primary and secondary sources contain pitfalls that can trap and blind the historian in his pursuit of historical accuracy. The veracity of the particular source, the motives behind the source and the origins of the evidence are all concerns for the historian. In conjunction with these problems can be the temptation to subsume personal and contemporary reports and evidence for the purposes of a grander and more wide-ranging historical narrative. Hew Strachan believes that hindsight can disfigure and reduce the essence of history. Hindsight refers to the ability to understand an event or situation only after it has happened  [i]  1and Strachan believes that this can imbue the historian with an arrogant view of those who did not see the bigger picture or understand the deeper motives behind historical events. Does this have some truth and if so can it distort history to such a degree that it almost erases the individual struggle or achievement? Or does this problem exist merely within a wider spectrum of historical concerns? History must be about balance so is a merging of both the personal and the panoramic possible? Strachan writes that hindsight distorts history through fostering arrogance. In his book The First World War he talks of the fact that just because other ideas and ideologies seem foreign to us, this does not deny their charge for those who went to war in 1914  [ii]  so therefore this muting of the past does not push us to understand it merely obfuscates the truth. Yet what is history, but an attempt to see the grander picture and how ideas fit into individual histories and testimonies. The primary sources that are around for historical examination bring with them not just their face value but an attempt to recreate the conceits and facets behind them. In 1946 Ellen Hammer wrote in an article on Americas relations with the Vichy government that throughout the war information filtered into neutral capitals but only on the spot sources could report with any authority  [iii]  , but just how problematic are these on the spot accounts? It is certainly true that primary sources retain an immediacy and relevance that is difficult to ignore. It is through letters, diaries and newspapers that we have built up much of our knowledge of the First World War. Without these sources we would be dependent on fractious second-hand testimony or oral traditions resplendent with hyperbole. For the historian it is necessary to look at the facts behind the facts. The researcher must certainly avail himself of hindsight and retrospection but must not allow themselves to become victims of them. Isaac Deutscher wrote that the historian deals with fixed and irreversible patterns of events; all weapons have already been fired  [iv]  and as the historical inquiry gathers pace the historian is aware that he is surveying a spent battlefield but how accurate are the bullets he has examined? There is perhaps nothing more alive in the consciousness of Europe than the concerted attempt to exterminate European Jewry by the Nazis during the Second World War. According to Gilbert in his study of the subject merely to give witness by ones own testimony was, in the end, to contribute to a moral victory. Simply to survive was a victory  [v]  and it is a testament to the human condition that so many survived. These terrible events have continued to be explored in witness accounts and literature and another event that has been extensively written about has been the Great or First World War. The last remaining survivor of that conflagration recently passed away so now that the survivors have died out and can no longer contribute to their own victories, will future generations have their knowledge shaped by hindsight and retrospection when it comes to those times? It is important to note that both hindsight and retrospection can give us many valuable lessons on historical experience. Dr Johnson wrote that when a design has ended in marriage or success, when every eye and every ear is witness to general discontent or general satisfaction, it is then a proper time to disentangle confusion and illustrate obscurity  [vi]  2and it is within this statement that a major part of the rationale behind history can be identified. Although the canvas of history is vast, the minutiae helps build up the overall picture and hence hindsight aids that process as well as retrospection. There are certain elements in any event that are not known and cannot possibly be known at the time of the event. At the end of the Great War who could have known that the aftermath would provide the bedrock for the Soviet Union and force a reluctant United States onto the world stage  [vii]  but these were the consequences of that conflict, although not recognized in thei r scope at the time. The problem that the historian faces is that this knowledge can give special onus to events that had none and rob other events of their posterity. However, how can we disentangle and illustrate without letting individual values and beliefs, perhaps vastly removed from those we are studying, intrude on the historians research? This is what Strachan talks of when he mentions the disadvantages of hindsight. Kenneth Baker writes that memory plays tricks with the past, events are sometimes remembered only in part  [viii]  3and in todays contemporary media saturated society, it may seem strange to consider just how diverse and varied accounts of the past were. Yet this removal from the events that unfolded can give us, real and imagined distance, between the understanding and interpretation. The two biggest conflagrations of the twentieth century, both World Wars, are probably two of the most written about subjects in history. Their respective arcs spanned the globe and brought devastation and change to many aspects of peoples lives. However, their documenting and recording throw up countless testimonies and accounts of those times which are not always possible to examine with straight forward simplicity. One of the first problems that the historian is presented with is the sheer dearth of material that is available. Fest writes that once in a while it is necessary for the chronicler to put aside his magnifying glass. For the way things fit together has a significance of its own and can give us information that no mere examination of details can  [ix]  but this chronicle involves thousands upon thousands of minute details that are its integral parts. The motivations and recollections of those at the time as well as their possessions and other sources can easily be brushed aside as hindsight condemns them to the undergrowth of history. After Austria-Hungarys declaration of war on Serbia, accounts have been written of the jubilation that greeted the announcement. The joy and euphoria may have been real but despite the later disillusionment with the war, this does not mean we can learn nothing from that day. These testimonies are still valid and tell us more about attitudes to war th an about the war itself. The temptation for the historian is to conclude that the destruction of WW1 shows how the enthusiasm evaporated but up until the very end, there were those who embraced the war. Adolf Hitler, then an obscure corporal speaks of the war years as the greatest and most unforgettable time of my earthly existence  [x]  but despite what we know about Hitlers later life and his absent moral compass, this testimony is still relevant because of its immediacy. The combination of personal and professional in the recollections and remembrances of participants can add interesting texture and nuance to historical investigation. Strachan writes in his book on the Great War about Conrad Von Hotzendorff, the Austrian Chief of the General Staff and of how Hotzendorff was in love with a married woman. Hotzendorff saw a triumphant return from the battlefield as an integral part of gaining acceptability for this relationship and Strachan writes that Conrads response to Franz Ferdinands assassination was more visceral than rational  [xi]  . This highlights an important problem when dealing with sources. The actions and motivations of participants can seem indicative of one course of action but this motivation can contain a number of individual facets and aims. As well as the difficulty of gleaning motive, testimonies and documents of the period can fall victim to retrospective thinking. The particular feelings and emotions of a person can undergo transformation as time flows and if that particular person is not around at that moment, then the historians interpretation could be colored by emotions that only resurfaced at a present time. The human condition is so multi-faceted that it constantly fluctuates and seeks to change into a particular set of perceptions that are prevalent at the time. The actions and thoughts of individuals also present problems when constructing historical timelines as they are often belied by diplomatic effort and political reflection. Strachan again writes of the events leading up to the Great War that the experience of earlier crises had conditioned statesman to put events in the broader context of European international relations  [xii]  and this goes in tandem with subjective testimonies related by individuals or groups. Richard J Evans argues that the historians questions should be formulated not by some present theory but from the historical sources themselves  [xiii]  which leads to the observation that whose history is being recorded? The emphasis on high politics and political history has a tendency to negate the other factors that can determine events. In the case of primary sources, the testimonies of survivors can be brushed off as subjective ruminations that incorporate too much personal experience. It is the major players in the games of politics and power, the elite, which therefore can and must be relied on because they are the ones who were in the driving seat. This rationale takes on the very characteristics of the people it reveres as it reduces history to an elite club of statesmen and hierarchies whose actions were the engine in world history. Yet a solitary emphasis on the actions of the people or social history can be just as exclusivist. Much of the writing on the First World War concerns the massive loss of life during the military campaigns of The Somme and Ypres and in this sense it can give a picture of an event being merely the sum of its battles and military maneuvers. Yet Strachan writes of the Home Front that at the end of 1917, the British people were desperately tired  [xiv]  and Gilbert observes all over Europe, and in every country that had sent men to fight in Europe, the memorials to those who had been killed were being designed and put in place  [xv]  so any reliance on one type of source of history can in Johnsons words obfuscate and hide the greater picture. The reason for statements and articulations also have to be taken into account when considering historical evidence and never more so than when considered in a war situation. The Great War threw up some such examples of this practice. It is natural in wartime to seek to demonstrate how much of a threat the enemy is. Strachan uses this example in his book citing the Governor of Bosnia in 1914 as saying of the Serbs that towards such a population all humanity and all kindness are out of place  [xvi]  and this can be contrasted with Hitlers utterances to his Generals during the Second World War regarding the Russians and Jews. Propaganda and the uses that particular pieces of testimony were created for can create an obstacle in tackling historical sources. Stanley Weintraub writes in his book Silent Night, which deals with the Christmas truce of 1914 that for rival governments, for which war was politics conducted by persuasive force, it was imperative to make even temporary peace unappealing and workable  [xvii]  which for todays Western governments seems even more callous than war itself. Politicians of all persuasions unite to cite how this episode was a call to arms for us all and how in the madness of war, sanity was temporarily regained. This is in itself an example of both hindsight and retrospection. The ideals that were being fought for during that war were those of liberalism against force, freedom versus tyranny and since those ideas have been won for a majority of the world, it is seen as an episode of hope amidst war. This may be true but it was these exact governments that frowned upon this truce at the time and now in retrospect see its benefits. Thus, in some measure history can be distorted. Weintraub goes on to write that this impromptu truce seemed dangerously akin to the populist politics of the streets, the spontaneous movements that topple tyrants and autocrats  [xviii]  and one does not need to go far to see just how Strachan might be right in writing of hindsight as arrogance. The not too distant past saw a sitting government ignore the protests and cries of its people during the recent Iraq debacle. Once again it seems that the lessons of history are that those in power know best. It is important to remember that much of the sources that we have from the end of World War One were from captured documents but most importantly from the views of the Allies themselves, the victors. In such an environment it is possible for particular viewpoints to emerge that reinforce such origins. Wohlsetter writes that after the crisis, memories fade and recriminations take their place  [xix]  and this underscores much of what we know of our own history. The aftermath of both wars saw the division of Europe into different spheres of interest and thus once again the victors to an extent dictated the course of history. This use of sources could take place within the sphere of Eurocentrism. Nordenbo describes this as an historical point of view which perceives modernity, first and foremost as a unique modern European invention  [xx]  , a construct which sees the West as the leader in civilization and invention and the rest of the world as a kind of other. This Europe appears to non-Europeans as a land of milk and honey, a promised land and certainly contains the seeds of a European hegemonic system. Edward Said writes in his thesis Orientalism about the construction of this other. It is contained in Marxs maxim that they cannot represent themselves, so they must be represented and Said argues that to the West, the Orient is an other-worldly realm peopled by exotic, hedonistic infidels  [xxi]  and though dealing with the Orient this can be transposed to the examination of sources. It is possible because of the difficulty of obtaining documents in many places to merely stereotype and generalize using Western maxims and rationales. The problems of translation from other languages can also impede investigation and again ties in with this idea of Eurocentrism, that English lexicons and idioms are the natural record of history. To maintain this thought system is to deliver an irrevocable blow to the historical mindset. Hindsight also relies on the process of causation. This links a series of causes and sketches a rough timeline between events. This can blur the line between reality and impression. It is sometimes asserted that the Treaty of Versailles and its perceived harshness was instrumental in causing the Second World War. This was not the only factor and its overall impact can be negated. Several other factors must be considered, such as Hitlers own personal bent and drive, the expansionist drive of the German military and political elite and the notion of a Messianic savior, a Strong Man, destined to lead Germany to greatness. It is possible to agree with Strachan that hindsight does breed arrogance. The ideas and realities of contemporary life are quite removed from the realities of yesteryear. It is the job of the historian to make sense of these past times and draw conclusions and lessons from them. This can be problematic as the sources are as rich and varied as the events that shaped them. There is arrogance in history, people find it hard to laud and identify people who gave themselves for ideals and causes, and hence label them with contemporary judgments However just as hindsight does not give us the complete picture, so not all historical investigation is tainted by this thinking. The problems and difficulties of looking at sources are myriad and sometimes frustrating but only through careful sifting and collaboration of method can we attain that knowledge of the past that so informs the historians rumination on the present.